Creatine

The sports supplement that may have a surprisingly interesting role in brain health

Creatine is probably one of the last ingredients many people would expect to see in a nootropics guide.

It’s traditionally associated with:

Muscle. Strength. Exercise.

But creatine isn’t just involved in muscle energy.

Your brain also uses a lot of energy.

And the brain has its own creatine and phosphocreatine system, which helps support the production and recycling of ATP — the body’s immediate energy currency.

That has led researchers to ask an intriguing question:

Could increasing creatine availability also help the brain perform under certain conditions?

The answer isn’t simply yes or no.

But the evidence has become increasingly interesting.

A 2024 systematic review and meta-analysis of 16 randomized controlled trials involving 492 participants found significant benefits from creatine supplementation for memory, attention time and processing speed, although the studies varied considerably and weren’t all conducted in healthy adults.

And a previous meta-analysis specifically examining healthy people found a significant improvement in memory, with the strongest effect appearing in older adults.

So let’s take a closer look.

What Is Creatine?

Creatine is a naturally occurring compound produced by the body and also obtained through the diet.

The body stores most creatine in muscle, where it exists largely as phosphocreatine.

Phosphocreatine helps rapidly regenerate ATP during periods of high energy demand.

Creatine is also present in the brain.

This is important because neurons have substantial energy requirements.

The brain doesn’t simply “run on glucose.”

It has sophisticated systems for maintaining energy availability, and creatine is one part of that system.

Where Do We Get Creatine?

The main dietary sources are animal foods, particularly:

Meat
Fish
Some seafood

The body can also synthesise creatine itself.

People who eat little or no meat and fish may therefore have lower dietary creatine intake.

This is particularly interesting because some cognitive studies have found that people with lower baseline creatine availability may respond differently to supplementation.

That doesn’t mean everyone following a vegetarian or vegan diet needs creatine.

But it is an important area of research.

Why Is Creatine Interesting for the Brain?

The basic idea is energy availability.

Brain cells constantly need ATP for processes such as:

Maintaining electrical gradients
Sending signals
Neurotransmitter activity
Maintaining cell membranes
Supporting cellular repair

The creatine-phosphocreatine system acts somewhat like a rapidly available energy buffer.

Supplementing creatine can increase creatine stores in skeletal muscle.

Research also indicates that creatine can increase brain creatine availability, although the response may be smaller and slower than in muscle.

This provides a plausible biological explanation for why researchers are investigating creatine and cognition.

But once again:

A plausible mechanism isn’t proof of a cognitive benefit.

Human trials are what matter.

Does Creatine Improve Memory?

This is probably the strongest cognitive area of the evidence.

A systematic review and meta-analysis published in Nutrition Reviews examined randomized controlled trials in healthy individuals.

Ten trials were eligible for the systematic review, with eight included in the meta-analysis.

Overall, creatine supplementation produced a significant improvement in memory compared with placebo.

But the really interesting finding came from the age analysis.

The improvement was significant in adults aged approximately 66–76 years, while the younger group did not show a significant benefit.

That’s important.

It suggests creatine may not act like a universal “brain booster.”

Its effects may depend on:

Age
Baseline creatine status
Diet
Cognitive demand
Sleep
Other physiological factors

What Does the Newer Research Say?

A 2024 systematic review and meta-analysis looked more broadly at cognitive function.

It included 16 randomized controlled trials involving 492 participants, ranging from about 21 to 76 years old.

All of the included studies used creatine monohydrate.

The researchers found significant positive effects on:

Memory
Attention time
Processing speed

However, the authors also assessed multiple cognitive domains, and the results weren’t equally strong across all of them.

This gives us a useful overall picture:

Creatine looks more promising for some cognitive functions than others.

What About Executive Function?

Executive functions include mental processes such as:

Planning
Mental flexibility
Inhibition
Problem-solving
Working with information

Creatine has been investigated in this area.

Some trials have found improvements.

Others haven’t.

The broader meta-analytic evidence suggests potential cognitive benefits, but it isn’t strong enough to say that creatine reliably improves every aspect of executive function.

So I’d classify this area as:

Emerging.

What About Attention?

The 2024 meta-analysis found a significant effect on attention time.

However, “attention” is not one single thing.

Researchers can measure:

Sustained attention
Reaction time
Selective attention
Divided attention
Processing speed

An improvement on one test doesn’t necessarily mean someone will feel dramatically more focused during their working day.

This is another reason we need to avoid overly broad claims.

Creatine and Mental Fatigue

This is one of the most interesting areas of research.

Think about what happens when the brain is under unusually high demand.

For example:

Sleep deprivation.

When you’re severely sleep deprived, cognitive performance can deteriorate.

Creatine may have the potential to help the brain maintain energy availability under these conditions.

A 2026 systematic review specifically examined creatine during acute sleep deprivation.

Only five studies met the inclusion criteria.

The authors found an overall positive trend, but emphasised that the research remains sparse and effects varied by cognitive domain.

So this is:

Promising — but early.

An Interesting Sleep-Deprivation Study

An earlier controlled study examined creatine supplementation during 24 hours of sleep deprivation combined with mild exercise.

Participants receiving creatine experienced less deterioration in several measures, including:

Choice reaction time
Balance
Certain cognitive tasks
Mood

The researchers concluded that creatine appeared to have a positive effect on some tasks involving substantial prefrontal-cortex demand.

It’s an interesting result.

But it’s also a small study.

We shouldn’t interpret it as:

“Creatine prevents the effects of sleep deprivation.”

It doesn’t.

Sleep is still essential.

Creatine Isn’t a Substitute for Sleep

This deserves its own section.

If you’re exhausted, taking creatine shouldn’t be viewed as a way of replacing sleep.

The 2026 review found encouraging early evidence for some cognitive outcomes during acute sleep deprivation, but only five studies met its criteria. The authors explicitly called for better research.

So the sensible message is:

Creatine may help support cognitive performance under certain stressful conditions, but it cannot replace adequate sleep.

What About Ageing?

This is particularly interesting.

The earlier meta-analysis found a stronger memory effect in older adults than younger adults.

Why might that happen?

One possibility is that older adults may have different baseline creatine availability or energy demands.

But we don’t yet have a definitive answer.

It may also be that people with lower baseline stores have more opportunity to benefit.

This is a common pattern in nutrition research:

The people with the greatest deficiency or lowest baseline status may sometimes experience the largest response.

What About Vegetarians and Vegans?

This is another area worth watching.

Meat and fish provide dietary creatine.

People consuming little or none of these foods therefore obtain less creatine through their diet.

Some research has suggested that vegetarians may respond differently to creatine supplementation in cognitive tasks.

However, this doesn’t mean:

“Vegetarians need creatine for brain health.”

That’s too strong.

The evidence is still developing.

But dietary pattern is certainly a variable worth considering when studying creatine and cognition.

Why Creatine Monohydrate?

If you’re looking at creatine supplements, you’ll encounter numerous forms:

Creatine monohydrate
Creatine hydrochloride
Buffered creatine
Creatine ethyl ester
Other proprietary forms

For cognitive research, creatine monohydrate is particularly important.

The 2024 cognitive meta-analysis found that all included studies used creatine monohydrate.

That gives us a useful practical lesson:

The form with the strongest research base isn’t necessarily the form with the most sophisticated marketing.

Creatine monohydrate is simple.

And it has a substantial evidence base.

How Much Creatine Is Used?

Common supplementation approaches include:

Maintenance approach

Approximately:

3–5 g per day

on a consistent basis.

Loading approach

Some sports protocols use approximately:

20 g per day

for around five to seven days, divided into several smaller doses, followed by a lower maintenance dose.

A loading phase isn’t necessarily required.

It simply allows muscle creatine stores to rise more quickly.

For a brain-health context, there’s no good reason to assume that a large loading dose is automatically better.

Do You Need to Load Creatine?

No.

That’s one of the useful things about creatine.

You can take a smaller daily amount consistently.

The body will gradually increase its creatine stores.

A loading phase is primarily about speeding up saturation, particularly in muscle.

For someone interested primarily in cognitive health rather than athletic performance, a loading phase may not be necessary.

When Should You Take It?

There’s a lot of marketing around the “perfect” time to take creatine.

The evidence doesn’t establish that you need to take it at a particular time of day for cognitive benefits.

Consistency is more important.

You could take it:

With breakfast
With lunch
After exercise
With another meal

The most useful approach is probably the one you’ll actually stick with.

Does Creatine Make You Gain Weight?

It can.

But this isn’t necessarily body-fat gain.

Creatine increases water stored within muscle cells, particularly when muscle creatine stores are being saturated.

This can produce an increase in body weight.

That’s completely different from gaining fat.

For people using creatine for sports performance, this is well recognised.

For someone taking it primarily for cognitive reasons, it’s worth knowing about so that a small increase on the scales doesn’t come as a surprise.

Is Creatine Safe?

Creatine has one of the largest safety evidence bases among sports supplements.

But the kidney question deserves a particularly careful update.

Older research generally found no evidence of kidney damage in healthy people using studied doses.

More recent 2026 meta-analyses provide an important nuance.

A 2026 systematic review and meta-analysis of 19 RCTs plus one crossover study found that creatine supplementation increased serum creatinine, but did not significantly change estimated GFR overall. The authors suggested that the creatinine increase may reflect creatine metabolism rather than kidney damage.

Another 2026 meta-analysis involving 26 studies and 1,036 participants similarly found increased serum creatinine and changes in creatinine-based estimates, but no significant changes in kidney function when measured using cystatin-independent methods such as Cr-EDTA, alongside no significant differences in several other kidney markers. The authors concluded that the findings were more consistent with altered creatinine metabolism than kidney injury.

That’s an important distinction.

Why Can Creatine Raise Creatinine?

This often causes confusion.

Creatinine is a breakdown product of creatine.

If you take creatine, your body may produce more creatinine.

Therefore, a blood test can show an increase in serum creatinine.

That doesn’t automatically mean your kidneys have been damaged.

This is why healthcare professionals need to know if you’re taking creatine when interpreting kidney-related blood tests.

Does That Mean Creatine Is Completely Risk-Free?

No.

We shouldn’t say that.

The recent evidence is reassuring for kidney function in the populations studied, but the researchers continue to call for longer-term trials, particularly beyond one year.

And people with:

Known kidney disease
Reduced kidney function
Significant medical conditions
Certain medication regimens

should speak to a healthcare professional before supplementing.

This is particularly important if you’re considering high-dose use.

What About Dehydration?

Creatine has historically been associated with concerns about dehydration and muscle cramps.

The evidence doesn’t support the idea that standard creatine supplementation automatically causes dehydration.

Nevertheless, normal hydration remains sensible, particularly during exercise or hot weather.

Creatine isn’t a replacement for adequate fluid intake.

What About Caffeine and Creatine Together?

This is an interesting question because caffeine is the final ingredient in our Suppliwell library.

Both ingredients are widely used for physical and cognitive performance.

Research into combining them has produced mixed findings, particularly in sports performance.

For brain health, there’s no compelling reason to assume that combining creatine and caffeine produces a special cognitive effect beyond what each ingredient can contribute individually.

That’s something we’ll explore more fully in the final article.

Is Creatine a Stimulant?

No.

This is worth making clear.

Creatine doesn’t work like:

Caffeine
Nicotine
Traditional stimulants

You shouldn’t expect a sudden surge of energy immediately after taking it.

Its proposed cognitive effects are more closely related to cellular energy metabolism and changes in tissue creatine availability.

That means it belongs in the nootropics conversation for a very different reason from caffeine.

My Suppliwell Evidence Assessment

🧠 Memory: Promising

This is currently one of the strongest cognitive areas for creatine, particularly in older adults.

⚡ Brain energy: Biologically plausible

Creatine has a recognised role in cellular energy metabolism, including the brain.

🎯 Attention: Promising but emerging

The 2024 meta-analysis found an improvement in attention time, although the evidence base remains relatively small.

⚙️ Processing speed: Promising

The 2024 meta-analysis reported a significant improvement in processing speed.

😴 Sleep deprivation: Interesting but early

The 2026 systematic review found a positive trend, but only five studies were available.

👴 Ageing: Particularly interesting

Older adults may experience greater cognitive benefits than younger adults, particularly for memory.

🛡️ Kidney safety: Generally reassuring, with important nuance

Recent evidence indicates that creatine can increase serum creatinine without necessarily indicating kidney damage, but longer-term research remains important.

My Suppliwell Takeaway

Creatine may be the biggest surprise in our nootropics library.

It’s usually thought of as a sports supplement.

But the brain is an energy-hungry organ, and creatine is part of the body’s energy-buffering system.

The human evidence is increasingly interesting.

The strongest signal appears to be around:

Memory

with additional evidence for:

Attention and processing speed.

There’s also intriguing research around sleep deprivation and mental fatigue.

But there’s an important qualification.

The cognitive evidence is still considerably smaller than the evidence supporting creatine’s effects on physical performance.

So I wouldn’t call creatine a proven “brain booster.”

I’d describe it as:

A well-researched nutritional compound with a strong biological rationale and growing evidence for benefits in certain aspects of memory and cognitive performance, particularly in some older adults and under conditions of increased cognitive demand.

That’s a statement the current evidence can support.

Before You Try Creatine

I’d ask:

Am I interested in physical performance, cognitive health, or both?
Am I eating meat and fish regularly?
Am I considering creatine monohydrate?
Am I taking any medication that affects kidney function?
Do I have existing kidney problems?
Am I expecting an immediate stimulant-like effect?
Am I prepared to take it consistently?

And remember:

Creatine isn’t a replacement for sleep, exercise or a good diet.

It’s an addition to those foundations — not a substitute for them.

Quick Summary

Question	Suppliwell assessment
Is creatine naturally produced by the body?	Yes
Is creatine found in the brain?	Yes
Is it involved in ATP energy metabolism?	Yes
Evidence for memory?	Promising
Evidence for older adults?	Particularly interesting
Evidence for attention?	Promising but emerging
Evidence for processing speed?	Promising
Evidence during sleep deprivation?	Early but interesting
Is creatine a stimulant?	No
Does it cause water-weight gain?	It can
Is creatine monohydrate well studied?	Yes
Does it necessarily damage healthy kidneys?	Current evidence does not support that conclusion
Does it raise serum creatinine?	It can
Is long-term research still needed?	Yes

The Suppliwell Bottom Line

Creatine has travelled a long way from being simply a gym supplement.

Its role in cellular energy metabolism gives researchers a credible reason to investigate its effects on the brain.

And the evidence is becoming increasingly interesting.

The strongest human evidence currently points towards potential benefits in memory, with additional signals around attention and processing speed.

The effects may be more noticeable in certain groups — particularly older adults or people experiencing unusually high cognitive demands.

But we’re not at the point where we can say:

“Everyone should take creatine for their brain.”

The evidence doesn’t support that.

Instead:

Creatine is one of the more promising nutritional compounds being investigated for cognitive health, but its cognitive benefits appear to depend on the person, the circumstances and the cognitive outcome being measured.

That’s the Suppliwell position.

Evidence first. Marketing second.

Important Note

This article is for general educational purposes and isn’t intended to diagnose, treat, cure or prevent disease. It isn’t a substitute for individual medical advice. If you have kidney disease, reduced kidney function, a significant medical condition, take prescription medication, or are considering high-dose creatine supplementation, speak with an appropriately qualified healthcare professional.

References

Prokopidis K, et al. Effects of creatine supplementation on memory in healthy individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Nutrition Reviews.

The effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive function in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2024.

Williams NB, Hurley RB, Cevallos ME. Creatine Supplementation and Acute Sleep Deprivation: A Systematic Review of Cognitive, Psychomotor, and Mood Outcomes. 2026.

McMorris T, et al. Effect of creatine supplementation and sleep deprivation, with mild exercise, on cognitive and psychomotor performance, mood state, and plasma concentrations of catecholamines and cortisol. Psychopharmacology.

Tsiaras A, et al. The effect of creatine supplementation on kidney function: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. 2026.

Almeida AS, et al. Impact of creatine supplementation on kidney health: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026.

Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Renal Function: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. 2019.

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Creatine: What Does the Evidence Really Say?